Diary of a Homeschooling Mum: October 2013

'.. the five main types of play in which human children engage (physical play, play with objects, symbolic play, pretence/socio-dramatic play and games with rules)..'

'..Pellegrini (2009), for example, has concluded that, in animals and humans, play (as opposed to ‘work’) contexts free individuals to focus on ‘means’ rather than ‘ends’. Unfettered from the instrumental constraints of the work, where you have to get something done, in play the individual can try out new behaviours, exaggerate, modify, abbreviate or change the sequence of behaviours, endlessly repeat slight variations of behaviours, and so on. It is this characteristic of play, it is argued, that gives it a vital role in the development of problem-solving skills in primates, and the whole gamut of higher-order cognitive and social-emotional skills developed by humans...'

'..As regards language, Vygotsky argued that play makes a crucial contribution to the development of the unique human aptitude for using various forms of symbolic representation, whereby various kinds of symbols carry specific, culturally defined meanings. These forms of symbolic representation include drawing and other forms of visual art, visual imagination, language in all its various forms, mathematical symbol systems, musical notation, dance, drama and so on. Play is recognised in this analysis as the first medium through which children explore the use of symbol systems, most obviously through pretence...'

Vygotsky went on to argue that pretence play becomes a ‘transition’ from the ‘purely situational constraints of early childhood’ to the adult capability for abstract thought. Children, he argued, require the support of real situations and objects with which to work out ideas through play.

Vygotsky noted that certain types of children’s play (mostly play with objects and pretence) are often accompanied by self-directed or ‘private’ speech.

Berk, Mann and Ogan (2006), for example, have reported on a number of studies investigating how young children learn to cope with emotionally arousing or stressful events, particularly through this type of play. The evidence indicates that children spontaneously engage in socio-dramatic pretence play relating to stressful or traumatic situations arising in their experience (e.g.: going to the dentist, or the hospital).

Physical play

This type of play was the earliest to evolve and can be observed in some reptiles and amphibians and most, if not all, mammals (Power, 2000). In human children it includes active exercise play (e.g.: jumping, climbing, dancing, skipping, bike riding and ball play), rough-and-tumble (with friends, siblings or parents/ guardians) and fine-motor practice (e.g.: sewing, colouring, cutting, junk modelling and manipulating action and construction toys).

Fine-motor play refers to a wide range of activities which support young children’s development of their fine-motor hand and finger co-ordination skills. These activities are often solitary, can be beneficially supported by an adult (e.g.: sewing, construction) and, due to their absorbing nature, help children develop their concentration and perseverance skills.

Play with objects

This second type of play is also widely observed in primates (Power, 2000) and in humans concerns children’s developing explorations, as young scientists, of the physical world and the objects they find within it. Play with objects begins as soon as infants can grasp and hold on to them; early investigative behaviours include mouthing/biting, rotating while looking, rubbing/stroking, hitting
and dropping. This might be described as ‘sensori-motor’ play when the child is exploring how
objects and materials feel and behave. From around eighteen to twenty four months toddlers begin to
arrange objects, which gradually develops into sorting and classifying activities. By the age of four years, building, making and constructing behaviours emerge.

Symbolic play

As we have discussed above, humans are uniquely equipped to use a wide variety of symbolic systems including spoken language, reading and writing, number, various visual media (painting, drawing, collage) music and so on. Not surprisingly, during the first five years of life, when children are beginning to master these systems, these aspects of their learning are an important element within their play. This type of play supports their developing technical abilities to express and reflect upon their experiences, ideas and emotions.

Pretence/socio-dramatic Play

High-quality pretend play has repeatedly been shown to be very closely associated with the development of cognitive, social and academic abilities. Studies have reported the impact of playworld experience on narrative skills in five to seven year olds (Whitebread and Jameson, 2010), of pretence play on deductive reasoning and social competence, and of socio-dramatic play on improved ‘self-regulation’ among young children who are prone to be highly impulsive.

An aspect of socio-dramatic play which often causes concern amongst parents and teachers is that related to play with guns. However, the research evidence suggests that these concerns are misplaced and that attempts by adults to discourage or forbid them are generally counter-productive. Gun play, similar to rough-and-tumble, is easily distinguishable from real aggression or violence. In this kind of play, as in all other aspects of socio-dramatic play, children are developing their co-operative and social skills in contexts which are salient to their interests, and which arise from their real and vicarious experiences (Holland, 2003; Levin, 2006).

Games with Rules

Young children are strongly motivated to make sense of their world and, as part of this, they are very interested in rules. As a consequence, from a very young age, they enjoy games with rules, and frequently invent their own. Opie and Opie’s (1959) collections of children 24 games and folklore are a testament to children’s love of games with rules. These include physical games such as chasing games, hide-and-seek, throwing and catching etc. and, as children mature, more intellectual games such as board and card games, electronic and games, and the whole variety of sporting activities.

As well as helping children to develop their understandings about rules, the main developmental contribution of playing games derives from their essentially social nature. While playing games with their friends, siblings and parents, young children are learning a range of social skills related to sharing, taking turns, understanding others’ perspectives and so on (DeVries, 2006).

Well-designed computer games offering open-ended or problem-solving challenges to children are likely to share some of the benefits of problem-solving or constructional play with objects (Siraj-Blatchford and Whitebread, 2003).

In the UK and many other countries, rates of obesity, self-harm and mental health disordersdiagnosed in children have climbed significantly. This is attributed to a now well recognised phenomena of ‘nature deficit disorder’ (Louv, 2005) arising from children having very limited access to the outdoors and natural environments.

In their play, children appropriate different spaces and features within their environment which are quite unpredictable by adults, and that the richest play spaces are mostly natural and unplanned. Many urban playgrounds, designed by adults, are often too neat and tidy, and essentially often rather barren as regards playful opportunities. The most successful urban play environments are ‘adventure playgrounds’ which are set up so that children can adapt them and build their own spaces, using a range of natural and man-made building materials (Bartlett, 2002).

Within this general position it is well established that materials and toys support play most effectively when they are open and flexible and provide children with a wealth of opportunities for creativity, for social interaction with their peers and adults, for authorship and for deep engagement (Gauntlett et al., 2010).

The role of adults in children’s play

The role of adults in children’s play is a complex and under-researched area and so, not surprisingly, a number of slightly different views were expressed by our European experts. On the one hand Broström and Texter expressed the view that the full potential of play can only be unlocked by active teachers or parents. On the other hand, Baumgartner, Marín and Muchacka were of the view that children’s play doesn’t need adult supervision. Adults should provide materials, safe spaces and toys to encourage children’s play without interfering.

Howard expressed the view, however, that dichotomising ‘adult directed v child initiated’, ‘work v play’ or ‘structured v unstructured’ situations is not, in practice, particularly helpful. The key point, in her view, is whether the children perceive the situation as playful. Her research suggests that it is possible for adults to operate as co-players with children, supporting and extending the play activities, while preserving the children’s freedom and autonomy to develop the play as they wish.

‘[Play should be] spontaneous, flexible, unpredictable, imaginative and directed by them [the

children]’ (Playboard)

‘[Children should be allowed] to take risks, make mistakes, have everyday adventures and

test themselves and their boundaries’ (Ludemos Associate)

‘Play is spontaneous, self-motivated and controlled by the child. Play is not created by adults

for children but by children themselves’ (IPA)

Re-establishing a more evidence-based balance between the demands of safety and the needs of children to play freely, particularly in natural outdoor environments, was a priority expressed by all the organisations consulted. The response from Playlink is typical of the views expressed:

‘This is an extremely sensitive area and needs to be addressed thoughtfully. In general we would say that children and teenagers suffer from too much attention from adults so far as their free time is concerned. In that sense, we believe more ‘benign neglect’ is required. In terms of supervised, specifically play provision, we endorse a playworker – ‘low intervention, high response’ - approach seen in the best adventure playgrounds. Equally, it is vital that support for a playwork approach in certain settings should not dilute the absolute need for there to be more opportunities for children and teenagers to play without adult presence or supervision.